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By Doris J. Johnson
Many parents of young children with learning disabilities ask what
they can do at home to help their youngsters. Generally, the first
step is to try to understand the child's difficulties and to consider
how these weaknesses might impact on self help skills, communication,
discipline, play and independence; however, above all, we encourage
them to focus on the child's strengths in order to build self esteem
and to help them become an integral part of the family. Like all
parents, they need to consider the delicate balance between providing
too much or too little assistance for the child - a balance between
under and over expecting what the child can do independently.
Understanding the child's needs takes time because needs change
with age and with expectations at home, in social settings, and
in school. New and unexpected problems may arise as they do with
all children. However, youngsters with special needs often require
more understanding and support, not only from parents and teachers
but also from siblings.
Early Learning
The early childhood years are particularly important because learning
typically occurs so rapidly. Children change from almost complete
dependence to relative independence in a few short years. Much of
the learning during this time occurs without formal instruction;
however, most parents teach their children informally as they encourage
them to notice things in the environment, as they label objects,
and as they guide certain social skills, appropriate behaviors,
and manners. Parents teach self-help skills such as dressing, buttoning,
and tying. Often they teach their children how to throw a ball and
ride a bike. And many parents provide the basis for early reading,
writing, and mathematics skills by reading stories, reciting the
alphabet, coloring, copying letters, writing simple messages, and
playing counting games. Parents engage in these activities so naturally
that they do not even think of them as instruction, and yet, this
training, social interaction, and stimulation are crucial for learning.
Some children with learning disabilities find these seemingly natural,
every day skills difficult to learn, even with good stimulation.
They do not profit from the experiences and guidance provided by
parents, preschool teachers, and others because they have difficulty
processing certain types of information. Yet children with learning
disabilities are not delayed in all aspects of development. In fact,
many do as well as, or better than their peers in certain areas.
They have uneven patterns of development and perform below expectancy
in one or more areas of learning such as listening, expressive language,
pre-academic skills, nonverbal behavior, and/or perceptual motor
skills. It is because of these uneven profiles and unexpected weaknesses
that they are somewhat difficult to understand. Their learning and
behavior is less predictable than normally achieving children, and
perhaps different from children who are delayed in all areas of
development.
Symptoms Associated with Learning Disabilities
The symptoms associated with learning disabilities differ. Some
children have difficulty processing auditory information while others
have problems with visual tasks. Some have difficulty processing
language, whereas others have problems with nonverbal skills such
as interpreting facial expressions, learning to play, or dress themselves.
Some have no problems until they enter school, though indications
of pre-academic weaknesses may be evident.
When problems persist, parents may discuss their concerns with
physicians, educators, or specialists in fields such as learning
disabilities, occupational therapy, or speech/language pathology.
A comprehensive evaluation which includes a developmental history,
tests for mental ability, oral language, pre-academic achievement,
perceptual-motor skills, various cognitive processes and behavior
is helpful in order to obtain an overall profile of strengths and
weaknesses, and in order to make recommendations.
Help for Young Children
Some children may be placed in a developmental class where they
can receive supplemental help, whereas those with milder problems
may be seen individually for assistance. In other instances, a specialist
might go into the class or kindergarten to assist the child with
those areas of learning which appear to be most difficult. Others
will be placed on a watch list and their learning will be monitored.
In certain instances, families choose private intervention, particularly
if the schools do not provide services in the early childhood years.
Some specialists give parents suggestions for activities at home,
depending upon the needs of the child. While we do not recommend
formal lessons, parents are encouraged to take advantage of their
daily routines to foster the development of certain concepts and
skills that appear to be weak. Whatever parents decide to do, however,
should be done in the context of a social relationship that is pleasant
and non-threatening. Emphasis should be given to the child's strengths,
not just the weaknesses. Parents may find it difficult to help children
in the areas of weakness, and some children do not like exposing
weaknesses to their parents. Thus, there is a delicate balance to
be achieved. Children should feel loved and respected irrespective
of any difficulties they may have. Too much emphasis on the weaknesses
can destroy that delicate balance. Sally Smith's book (1994),
Different Is Not Bad, includes many examples to highlight individual
differences. Similarly, Jill Lauren's book (1997) contains stories
from children and adults with learning disabilities who have achieved
success despite their difficulties.
Because children with learning disabilities are unique, and because
their strengths and weaknesses vary, parents often need help in
understanding their difficulties. Indeed, many parents and teachers
need to understand many of the typical behaviors of young children
lest they view them as problems. Books such as Don't Push Your
Preschooler by Ames and Chase (1980) and others based on the
research of Gesell provide general guidelines and examples of behaviors
that one might expect during the early childhood years. Chess and
Thomas (1987) also discuss differences in temperament which parents
and educators need to consider. They report that most parents can
describe their child's temperament accurately (p. 37), but they
often need help in dealing with their behaviors. Among other guidelines,
they say that if a child behaves differently than you expect, do
not assume you are a bad parent. Nor should you assume that the
child is deliberately misbehaving. However, the temperament may
require some special handling.
Parents may find it helpful to read books by Osman (1979), Silver
(1998), and others, as well as the materials prepared by the LDA
Early Childhood Committee. These can be obtained by contacting the
national LDA office, 4156 Library Road, Pittsburgh, PA 15234.
Recommendations
It is important to remember that the population of children with
learning disabilities is heterogeneous. The children are similar
because they all have adequate hearing, vision, mental ability,
and many strengths, but their specific disabilities and symptoms
differ. Therefore, not all of the suggestions provided below are
applicable, but we begin with general recommendations.
- Focus on the child's strengths, not the weaknesses
Every child is unique; all can contribute to the joys of family
life. Find special times and jobs that allow the child to contribute
to the group.
- Set reasonable expectations
Try not to expect more than the child is capable of doing, but
expect the best that he or she can produce, with and then without
assistance. This may mean that the child will have to be taught
simple skills, and that complex tasks will need to be taught step
by step. For instance, learning how to button may begin with the
last movement - just pulling the button through the button hole.
Learning how to set the table for a meal might begin with putting
a fork by each plate. Cleaning one's room may require showing
which toys will fit on a particular shelf or in the correct box.
Many of these skills are needed to help the child gain independence.
Provide the initial assistance and then gradually reduce the supports
as the child makes progress.
- Provide the guidance needed for independence
Many children want to be independent, long before they are capable
of doing some things on their own. Parents and teachers are often
ambivalent about letting children perform certain skills independently.
For example, climbing the steps on a sliding board requires some
degree of sure-footedness, as well as visual and visual-motor
skills. Crossing the street requires very careful visual scanning
and time estimation. Some children with learning disabilities
will need careful guidance and instruction in order to master
these skills because of attention and processing weaknesses. Gradually
the supports can be reduced so the child can perform independently.
- Maintain consistent discipline
Give clear, simple explanations, particularly if children have
language problems. They may not understand the vocabulary, lengthy
instructions, and complex sentences used at home or in school.
Our guideline is firmness with warmth, together with consistency.
- Foster intellectual curiosity
One of our primary goals is to excite children about the learning
process. Parents and teachers who enjoy learning themselves can
convey such an attitude to their children. Many infants and toddlers
seem to be naturally curious as they look at objects, explore
them, turn them, try to move them, etc. By watching their eyes
and hand movements, long before they can talk, children seem to
be asking What's this? What can I do with this? How does it taste?
Can I push it, roll it, bang it? As they sit in a high chair banging
with a spoon, they become aware of the sound of metal against
metal, or metal against wood. When taking a bath, they learn how
to splash in the water, and, if given certain toys, they may acquire
the rudiments of the concept of floating and sinking. As they
play with pots and pans, they learn about shapes, sizes, and the
beginning of seriation, an important concept for early mathematics.
Some researchers in the field have found that children with
learning disabilities are inactive learners. While the bases
for this inactivity are not clear, adults can develop a spirit
of inquiry by guiding the child's listening and looking, by
showing excitement and wonder about even simple events in the
world. Some parents do this automatically. I remember seeing
a mother and toddler looking intently at something on the sidewalk,
and as I approached, I noticed they were studying a caterpillar.
Mother was guiding the child's looking and using words such
as fuzzy, crawling slowly, etc. She, like many other parents,
was fostering learning, language, and intellectual curiosity.
One does not have to have fancy toys to excite children. Many
children can be content with a pail, a shovel, some sand and
water if we guide them to see what can be done with such objects.
Take a walk around the block, look at the trees and the
bushes, feel the bark of the tree, smell the flowers, look at
the grass, the gravel, the cement and talk about what is hard,
smooth, rough, and pretty. One of our goals is to provide the
basis for life long learners as suggested by Calkins with Adellino
(1997).
- Help children classify and categorize objects
Many children naturally put groups of objects together because
they are the same color or shape, or because of their use. If
given blocks, toy cars, cups and saucers, they notice similarities
and differences, a critical skill for all learning. However, some
children with learning disabilities have problems with conceptualization
(Lewis, Strauss, & Lehtinen, 1960). They do not notice similarities
or observe the most relevant attributes. If given groups of objects
they tend to sort on the basis of an insignificant detail (e.g.,
they all have lines on them) or they are inflexible which means
that if given sets of blocks, they may be able to sort by color,
but not shape. Because categorization is such an important part
of learning, we include it in most of our lessons. We guide children
to note how shoes, pencils, apples, coats, and other objects are
alike because words represent concepts. In order to understand
apple, children must note that they can be different colors and
sizes, but are alike in many ways. Parents can help with this
categorization process when they go to grocery stores, parks,
zoos, and other places to note how things in certain areas are
similar. The grocery bag can be used for many conceptual and language
tasks. When putting things away, encourage the child to help and
to note which things go in the freezer, in the refrigerator, and
in cupboards. Note which things are in bottles, cartons, or cans,
and call attention to foods that need to be cooked before they
are eaten and which do not. The same type of classification activity
can be done with the laundry, or objects in a workshop, and even
in the child's own room. The important thing is to help them categorize,
and reclassify objects so they become flexible thinkers. Later,
we encourage them to note how words are alike.
Provide Good Language Models and Stimulation
When children have delayed language, some parents tend to talk
less to them. While some reduction of language may be helpful, children
need good stimulation. In his book, Talk with Your Child, Wiener
(1988) emphasizes the importance of informal, unstructured conversation
to guide children's learning. Although his focus is on normally
developing children, he said that parents should talk while they
are doing things with the child to enhance vocabulary and concepts.
For example, if the child wants something to eat, the parent might
externalize his or her thinking - Let's get a banana; uh, oh, this
one is not ripe; it is too green. How shall we peel the banana?
I can't eat the peeling. What color is the peeling? It's yellow;
what color is the part that we eat? - it's white. Wiener says that
when carrying on such dialogues, even if the child cannot speak,
parents should wait for some type of response. This kind of social
interaction strengthens the interpersonal relationship as well as
verbal learning.
Guide the Child's Language Comprehension
Many parents of children with delayed language are concerned about
their lack of ability to speak or to put words together in sentences,
but in reality, the first step is to make certain they understand
language. We do not ask children to say words that they do not understand
because they will not be able to use them for communication.
When helping children comprehend new vocabulary, we emphasize that
words are concepts. As stated above, words are not simple associations.
Often, normally developing children as well as those with language
problems use overextensions. That is, they call all liquids juice.
Others may use underextensions; all juice is orange. Gradually,
with varied experiences, their word meanings approach those of adults.
However, vocabulary acquisition goes on throughout life.
It is important to remember that in English, the same object can
have more than one name (e. g. , rug, carpet), and the same word
may have several meanings (e. g. , bill, back). Many children with
learning disabilities have problems understanding words with multiple
meanings, particularly those that change with the context . For
example, children probably first learn the word letter when it refers
to an envelope that is sent or received in the mail. Later, however,
the word letter will refer to a part of the alphabet. Most normally
achieving children seem to abstract these word meanings more easily
than those with language learning disabilities. Therefore, when
children start to school, teachers and parents need to make certain
they understand word meanings in new contexts, particularly the
language of instruction (Johnson, 1999). We have seen many 7 and
8 year olds with learning disabilities who did not understand the
terminology used in reading instruction. For example, when asked
to point to a letter or a word, they were confused. Many also have
difficulty with words representing time and space (e. g. , before,
after, between). When this is the case, they might fail tasks they
could otherwise master if the vocabulary in the instructions were
clarified. Words representing time, space, and quantity are often
difficult. Children may have difficulty comprehending words such
as in, on, under, over, and between; some comprehend these words
in three dimensional, but not two dimensional, space. Simple demonstrations
while saying in the box, under the box, etc. may be helpful.
Many words are difficult to comprehend because the referent is
not visible. Unlike words such as table, big, or sharp, which can
be observed, abstract words are learned in context from other words.
For example, a parent might say that an honest person tells the
truth. In order to understand honest, one must understand the other
words in the sentence. We try to reduce the amount and level of
language so children understand new and difficult word meanings.
It may be necessary to help your child with the language of feelings.
Some do not understand words such as sad, angry, or embarrassed.
Let your children know how you feel in various situations also.
Help the Child Comprehend and Remember Longer Units
of Language
Some children can comprehend single words or short phrases, but
they have difficulty understanding the meaning of sentences and
stories. When children have difficulty listening to stories, it
is often helpful to speak slowly, to repeat phrases or sentences,
and when necessary, use pictures to illustrate the meaning.
Verbal discipline may also be problematic. Make certain the vocabulary
is clear and that directions are not too lengthy. Show the child
what to do if he or she does not understand verbal instructions.
Do Not Call Attention to Expressive Language Weaknesses
Language is first and foremost a form of communication. We recommend
that parents and teachers never interrupt a child's flow of thought
when he or she is trying to communicate. In certain instances, when
children cannot recall a word, it may be helpful to give a multiplechoice
question, or the first sound of a word. For example, if the child
is trying to recall the word juice, the parents might say, Do you
want juice or milk? This type of question will allow children to
use the word and to provide practice. In general, we think the parents
should not correct grammar or pronunciation. Although many parents
attempt to correct occasional mistakes, when problems are evident,
a specialist should provide the instruction. Meanwhile, the parents
should make every effort to communicate in other ways, through gesture
and pantomime if necessary. Never bribe a child to say a word or
sentence correctly. Make the verbal interactions as pleasant and
meaningful as possible. Listen to children. Make certain they have
opportunities to contribute to family discussions.
Engage the Child in Early Literacy Activities
Literacy refers to many oral language, reading, and writing activities,
all of which are intertwined. Reading to children strengthens oral
language and introduces them to various forms of discourse such
as stories, fairy tales, and poetry. Reading signs, labels, or thank
you notes helps them understand relationships between oral and written
language and emphasizes meaning. Sometimes, children with language
disorders do not like being read to because they cannot process
all of the information. In these cases, we suggest that parents
read the pictures and reduce the language level so that the child
comprehends. Wiener (1988) recommends extensive reading of pictures
to build vocabulary, descriptive language, and the basis for simple
narratives. From a single action picture (e. g. , a child eating
soup or cereal), one can ask countless questions about the objects,
the actions, how things might taste, whether the soup is hot, the
kinds of soup the child does or does not like, as well as simple
inferential questions. Studies of older students with reading comprehension
problems indicate they have difficulty answering inferential questions.
Therefore, we introduce such questions in the early childhood years.
For example, Do you think this boy likes the cereal? How do you
know? Look at his face. While reading, we also suggest that parents
stop periodically and ask the child questions about the story. Sometimes,
it is helpful for the parent and child to take turns asking questions
about the content. When looking at a can or carton of food, one
might ask, Which word do you think says milk? Encourage the child
to read signs such as stop, exit and words on doors such as boys,
girls, push, etc. The groceries from the market can be used for
many purposes including reading labels.
The primary goal is to make certain that children understand that
reading is a meaningful act. It is not learning the alphabet. Although
studies indicate that learning letter names predicts early reading,
in some instances, we focus on the sounds of the letters rather
than the names since the letter names do not really aid the reading
process per se. Furthermore, remembering 26 nonmeaningful figures
may be too difficult for some children.
Several studies in recent years have found that phonemic awareness
is related to early reading. Therefore, we encourage parents to
play listening games in which they identify objects that begin or
end with a particular sound (i. e. , Find all the things that start
with m, using the letter sound not the letter name). Blending is
often difficult for poor readers so we ask children to point to
the picture that goes with what I say - M - A - N. It is usually
easier for children to recognize the object than to say or blend
the sounds themselves, but both activities are beneficial. Rhyming
games are also encouraged.
In order to strengthen visual processes and whole word recognition
we suggest that when parents read to children they ask them to find
letters or words that look the same. For an independent activity,
we suggest the parent cut out a page from an old magazine or a page
of print and ask the children to circle words that look the same.
Parents might highlight a high frequency word such as the, and ask
the child to find others that look the same.
Early writing is also an important part of literacy. By age 3,
most children can draw a circle; by four they can draw a square,
and by five they can draw a triangle as well as the rudiments of
many letters and numerals. They also draw pictures of people, houses,
and simple objects. Many preschoolers enjoy pretend writing, which
is an important part of development. If one analyzes their scribbles
carefully, it is possible to see wordlike strings of figures and
drawings interspersed with letters. All of these activities should
be encouraged. Do not try to achieve perfect copying or production
of letters and numbers. Rather, let the child engage in writing
as a communicative act. When children can copy letters, however,
we use the opportunities that arise from going shopping. Encourage
children to help write the grocery list by copying one or two words
from empty cartons and boxes. Not only will the children feel helpful,
but they will begin to realize that writing is an aid to memory
- one of the important functions of writing. Invented spelling is
also encouraged as a part of meaningful writing. When a child writes
ILVU (I love you) on a note, be aware that this is good developmental
spelling. The child is beginning to identify certain sounds and
associating them with letters.
Many young children with learning disabilities have significant
problems with visual-motor integration. Some do not know how to
hold a pencil or draw the simplest figures. In these cases, an occupational
therapist or specialist in learning disabilities may be needed.
Parents can, however, assist by having children draw figures in
sand, make designs with finger paint, etc. Often we suggest that
parents purchase or make templates (stencils) from cardboard or
styrofoam so the child can trace inside the boundaries. We make
basic shapes and simple outlines of figures such as an apple, a
kite, or a fish. As children trace around the boundaries of the
figures, they learn the motor patterns and, when the stencil is
removed, they see a product that is better than one they can produce
from copy.
Encourage Early Mathematics and Number Activities
Introduce mathematics as a meaningful, pleasurable activity, not
a rote memory skill. While most parents play simple counting games
and sing number songs (all of which are helpful), we also recommend
activities which strengthen the language of mathematics and one-to-one
correspondence. Some children with learning disabilities have difficulty
counting systematically; others have difficulty with words such
as more, less, few and other relational terms. Encourage children
to help estimate, measure, pour water or milk, not only to learn
some of the quantitative terms but to help them acquire certain
visual- spatial-motor skills.
Simple games with dominoes can be used to match quantities, to
strengthen counting skills and one-to-one correspondence. When reading
to children, have them note the numbers of the pages and say them.
Some youngsters learn to count, but they do not learn how to read
numerals.
Seriation (ordering objects according to size) is an important
aspect of mathematics which parents can encourage. When children
are given pots and pans of various sizes to stack in order, they
are learning the rudiments of seriation. When they stack various
size rings on a peg they also learn about the smallest and largest
figures.
Simple problem solving can begin with activities such as setting
the table. How many more forks do we need? Do we have enough spoons?
These same types of activities can be used when playing games--
Do we have enough players, cards? etc. Many simple board games with
dice are excellent ways of teaching counting, one-to-one correspondence,
and turn taking.
Help the Child Learn to Play
Some learning disabilities interfere with a child's ability to
play and acquire social skills. One does not usually think about
having to teach children how to play, yet consider the visual-spatial,
language, and symbolic skills that are needed to play with blocks,
a doll house, trucks and cars in garages, making sand castles, etc.
While we do not want to make work out of play, in order for children
to play unsupervised or to participate in groups, adults may need
to show them how to stack blocks so they do not fall, to pretend,
to dig in the sand, and to play simple games. We can prepare them
for group activities by teaching the subskills in advance.
Throughout all of these activities, take time to enjoy the children
and have fun. Laugh at incongruous situations, and allow for the
learner's leeway. Everyone makes mistakes and we can learn from
them.
Encourage Children to Listen to Music and to Develop
a Sense of Rhythm
Musical skills may come easily for some children with learning
disabilities, in which case they can be used as a way to teach certain
early reading skills such as rhyming. We often use songs the child
knows (e. g. , Happy Birthday) as a way in to reading.
Other children need help in listening to rhythm, beat, and tempo
so they can participate in group activities. In these cases, we
encourage parents to clap or march with the children in time to
the music.
Teach Simple Time Concepts
Many students with learning disabilities have problems understanding
the language of time, the calendar, saying days of the week, months
of the year, telling time, and estimating time. Therefore, we recommend
work in this area at many age levels. During the early childhood
years, words such as early, later, today, tomorrow, etc. can be
emphasized. Mark school days on a calendar with a special color,
and perhaps keep simple weather journals illustrating sunny or rainy
days with simple drawings of a sun or raindrops.
Provide Structure for Children with Attention Problems
Some, but not all, children with learning disabilities have problems
focusing and maintaining attention. In these cases, we recommend
structure, reduction of stimulation in the environment, and quiet,
but firm discipline. The goal is not to punish, but to create an
environment in which the children can succeed. They may need help
with organization by breaking down complex tasks and by giving them
an orderly sequence of activities. Develop each subskill to achieve
automaticity. Create situations where parents and teachers can say
Good Work!
Summary
Children with special needs often have special gifts - gifts such
as sensitivity, perseverance, tenacity, and resilience. These gifts
are far more important than perfect recitation of the alphabet or
copying letters. All children can make progress, but the rate and
amount of improvement varies. Try to build on the child's strengths
to build his or her sense of self-respect. Help the child realize
the value of people in all walks of life as you go about daily routines.
There is a place for everyone.
When things do not seem to go as well as expected, it is often
helpful to contact teachers, physicians, and other specialists for
suggestions. Parents need time out and opportunities to talk with
parents of children with similar problems. Many communities have
support groups that may be beneficial. Parents learn from each other
and can share strategies that were most helpful for them.
References
Ames, L. & Chase, J. (1980). Don't push your preschooler (Revised
ed.). New York: Harper and Row.
Calkins, L., with Adellino L. (1997). Raising lifelong learners.
A parent's guide. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Chess, S. & Thomas, A. (1987). Know your child. New York: Basic
Books, Inc.
Johnson, D. (1999). The language of instruction. The Journal o
f Learning Disabilities Associate of Massachusetts, 9(2), 1-6.
Lauren, J. (1997). Succeeding with L. D. Minneapolis, MN: Free
Sprit Publishing Co.
Lewis, R., Strauss, A. , & Lehtinen, L. (1960). The other child.
New York: Grune and Stratton.
Osman, B. (1979). Learning disabilities: A family affair. New York:
Random House.
Silver, L. (1998). The Misunderstood Child: Understanding and coping
with your child's learning disabilities (3rd ed.). New York: Times
Books.
Smith S. (1994). Different is not bad: different is the world;
A book about disabilities. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Wiener, H. (1988). Talk with your child: How to develop reading
and language skills through conversation at home. New York: Viking.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Doris Johnson is a professor in the Department
of Speech and Director of the Learning Disabilities Center at Northwestern
University, Evanston, Illinois. Dr. Johnson served for many years
as Chair of the LDA Professional Advisory Board.
This article appeared in the Sep/Oct & Nov/Dec 1999
issues of LDA Newsbriefs (Volume 38, No.4), the newsletter of the
Learning Disabilities Association. Newsbriefs is published six times
a year and is a benefit of LDA
membership. |
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